Pizza Dough Kneading/Mixing Fundamentals: A Guide to the Most Important Step in Dough Making

In pizza making, much attention is given to fermentation, baking, and flour selection, while kneading often gets overlooked, not receiving the recognition it deserves. This article will lay out the theoretical and practical foundations of kneading, a step that plays a crucial and direct role in affecting pizza quality

Dough Kneading: Introduction

Kneading is the first step in dough making, and while it may not always seem like the most critical, it plays a pivotal role in determining the dough’s handling properties and the quality of the final product. Unlike fermentation or baking times, which can be adjusted, kneading is a non-reversible step. If done incorrectly, there’s little chance of correction later, making precision and discipline essential at this stage.

Kneading serves four key purposes:

1. Evenly mixing and distributing all dough components
2. Ensuring the flour and dry ingredients absorb water
3. Developing gluten
4. Oxidizing the dough

Kneading also affects the following aspects directly and indirectly:

• Under-kneading or over-kneading alters the dough’s handling properties at the end of the kneading process. Under-kneaded dough will be sticky and incoherent, while over-kneaded dough becomes too elastic and resistant.
• The dough’s temperature after kneading (final dough temperature) influences the fermentation rate.
• The degree of kneading shapes the crumb structure, producing either a dense or airy texture.
• It also impacts the eating characteristics, making the end product either tender and fluffy or tough and chewy.

The Four Key Purposes of the Kneading Stage

1. Evenly Mixing and Distributing All Dough Components

The principle is simple: dough consists of several components/ingredients (at the very least: flour, water, yeast, and salt), and the goal is to distribute them evenly and uniformly. Uneven distribution of yeast, for instance, can cause some yeast cells to die during fermentation due to a lack of access to food (since yeast is immobile, it can only consume what is immediately nearby).

2. Ensuring the Flour and Dry Ingredients Absorb Water

As we will see, a key condition for gluten formation is that the gluten-forming proteins in the flour must absorb water – without water, gluten cannot develop. Similarly, dry yeast must rehydrate to activate and function within the dough. Additionally, the other dry ingredients must also absorb water to blend into a uniform, cohesive dough mass.

3. Developing Gluten

For general information on gluten, you can refer to the Encyclopizza entry on gluten. In short, gluten is an elastic, sticky, rubber-like substance formed by a chemical reaction between two proteins found in flour – glutenin and gliadin – in the presence of water. Without this specific combination, gluten cannot form. The only sources of gluten (proteins) are certain grains, with wheat, barley, rye, and spelt being the primary ones.

In yeast-leavened baked goods, gluten plays a critical role in providing the dough with elasticity and strength. The gluten network traps the gases (CO2) produced during fermentation, allowing the dough to expand both before and during baking.

a primary goal of the kneading stage is to develop gluten. The level of gluten development needed by the end of kneading is a separate question, which we will address later.

To develop gluten during kneading, two conditions must be met:

1. The flour must absorb water.
2. Physical friction or agitation must be created between the gluten-forming proteins through the kneading action.

The combination of these factors – water absorption and friction between the proteins – is essential for gluten development during kneading. By applying force and stretching the dough through kneading, we encourage the formation of chemical bonds between glutenin and gliadin, leading to gluten development.

Determining the Degree of Gluten Development: The Windowpane Test

The windowpane test is a simple method to assess the level of gluten development in the dough. To perform the test, take a small piece of dough and gently stretch it between your fingers to form a thin, translucent sheet, resembling a window (see picture below).

The extent to which the dough stretches without tearing and becomes transparent indicates the degree of gluten development. The more transparent and stretchable the dough, the more developed the gluten.

When referring to ‘passing’ the windowpane test, it typically means achieving a transparent window, signaling that full gluten development has been reached.

As we will see later, the windowpane test can help assess the level of gluten development. However, for long-fermented pizza dough (or any long-fermented leavened dough), the windowpane test is irrelevant. There is neither a need nor a reason to use it, and we will explore why later.

4. Oxidizing the Dough

During kneading, we introduce oxygen into the dough by physically exposing it to the air. This oxygen triggers chemical reactions (oxidation) with both the gluten-forming proteins and natural pigments in the flour called carotenoids.

Oxidation of Gluten-Forming Proteins

Oxidation of gluten-forming proteins strengthens the chemical bonds between these proteins (for more details on these bonds, see the linked article on biochemical gluten development). Essentially, the oxidation process enhances these bonds, resulting in a stronger, more elastic dough.

If the dough does not undergo sufficient oxidation – either due to inadequate kneading or unoxidized flour – it will have a weaker gluten structure. This results in a dough that is more sticky, excessively extensible, and prone to tearing. The final baked product may also suffer from reduced volume and airiness.

Oxidation of Carotenoids

Carotenoids are pigments in flour that contribute to its yellowish-creamy color. The main carotenoids found in white flour are lutein and zeaxanthin. Most carotenoids are found in the bran and germ of the wheat, so purer flours with less bran and germ, like Italian 00 flours, are whiter and contain fewer carotenoids.

Carotenoids play a significant role in the dough’s flavor by participating in chemical reactions during fermentation and contributing to the development of organic and aromatic compounds. A dough with fewer carotenoids will have a different, often less complex flavor profile.

Similar to gluten-forming proteins, carotenoids undergo oxidation during kneading. Excessive oxidation of carotenoids can directly affect the flavor of the baked product.

Over-Oxidation of Carotenoids

Over-oxidation of carotenoids leads to their degradation, causing the dough to lose its yellowish hue and become almost completely white. This degradation affects not only the dough’s color, but also its flavor.

Over-oxidation and degradation of carotenoids can result in:

• Fewer essential organic compounds needed for positive flavors and aromas, leading to diminished taste and aroma.
• An increased likelihood of developing compounds associated with negative flavors (bitter, stale, spoiled) or “blurring” positive flavors, resulting in a bland taste.
• Faster flavor loss during storage (more relevant for bread than for pizza consumed immediately).
• Reduced nutritional value, including a loss of essential minerals such as vitamin A.

To avoid these issues, it is crucial to prevent over-oxidation of the dough.

The main causes of carotenoid over-oxidation are extended kneading times (often at high temperatures). If the dough changes color from a yellowish or creamy hue to white during kneading, it indicates excessive oxidation (see the picture below for an example).

Achieving the right balance of dough oxidation is an art in itself; on one hand, we want enough oxidation to strengthen the gluten, while on the other hand, we must avoid over-oxidation that can destroy the carotenoids.

It’s important to note that over-oxidation and over-kneading are primarily concerns with mixers. With hand kneading, it is nearly impossible to over-knead or over-oxidize the dough.

It’s important to note that over-oxidation and over-kneading are primarily concerns with mixers. With hand kneading, it is nearly impossible to over-knead or excessively oxidize the dough.

The Three Kneading Methods and Their Effect on the Final Product

The three main kneading methods of leavened dough are minimal kneading, improved kneading, and intensive kneading.

Each method significantly affects the final product, making it essential to understand how they work, how to perform them, and the consequences of using each. If you want to enhance your bread or pizza, the right kneading method might be the solution you didn’t know you needed.

In short, the three kneading methods correspond to different levels of gluten development at the end of the initial kneading, ranging from minimal to full gluten development (see the picture below for reference).

The degree of gluten development at the end of the initial kneading directly impacts the dough’s “final” elasticity and extensibility, and thus, the final texture of the bread or pizza:

• Minimal kneading (around 20% gluten development) produces a more extensible dough, leading to a crumb with a soft, tender texture and an open, airy structure. This method is common in artisanal products like pizza, baguettes, and ciabatta.
• Intensive kneading (100% or full gluten development) results in a more elastic dough with a denser, closed crumb and a chewy, tougher texture. This method is primarily used in industrial baked goods.
• Improved kneading (around 70% gluten development) is a “compromise” between minimal and intensive kneading.

The key principle behind these methods is the ability to continue developing gluten after the initial kneading, either through biochemical gluten development or by applying stretch and folds (which we will cover later).

Generally, the longer the fermentation, the more time there is for biochemical gluten development, allowing the dough to achieve full gluten development even if it was only minimally kneaded.

For example, in short fermentations of a few hours, there isn’t enough time for biochemical gluten development, so it’s desirable to reach full gluten development through intensive kneading. Conversely, for long fermentation, minimal kneading is sufficient, allowing the gluten to develop over time biochemically or through stretch and folds.

To assess the dough’s stage of gluten development, the windowpane test can be used. The picture below demonstrates the various stages of gluten development using the windowpane test:

Minimal Kneading

Before the industrialization of baking and the invention of mixers and other kneading machines, hand kneading was the only option. Dough kneaded by hand typically results in gentler gluten development and oxidation compared to the more aggressive mechanical action of a mixer – which is exactly what minimal kneading aims to achieve.

Minimal kneading is just a step above the no-knead method (a technique we’ll explore later), but both follow the same principle: during the initial kneading phase, gluten development remains minimal. The majority of gluten formation happens later, either biochemically during fermentation or through folding.

Minimal kneading creates a dough with a more open and airy crumb, with the softest, most tender texture. The reason is simple: mechanical kneading, especially with a mixer, tends to produce a more elastic, rigid gluten structure, while biochemical gluten development and folding create a more delicate and extensible gluten structure.

The downside of minimal kneading? It takes time. Gluten development after the initial knead doesn’t happen immediately – it requires longer fermentation or additional folds. But, given enough time, minimal kneading often leads to the best results, with superior texture and flavor in the final baked product.

Intensive Kneading

Intensive kneading only became possible with the invention of mechanical kneading devices like mixers. The goal of intensive kneading is straightforward: achieving full gluten development by the end of the initial kneading.

While achieving full gluten development through hand kneading requires significantly more time and effort, mixers can accomplish full gluten development quickly and easily. As a result, intensive kneading became common with the rise of industrial baking.

In intensive kneading, the dough reaches 100% gluten development by the end of the initial kneading stage, meaning there’s no need to rely on biochemical gluten development or folding. This method is especially suitable for doughs fermented for very short periods, making it popular in industrial settings where it boosts productivity and lowers costs, as more dough can be produced in less time.

However, the downside of intensive kneading is that it can negatively impact the quality of the baked product.

Intensive kneading often leads to over-oxidation, which negatively impacts flavor. Additionally, the more elastic gluten produced by intensive kneading results in a denser, less airy crumb, with a tougher and chewier texture compared to dough that undergoes minimal or improved kneading.

For this reason, intensive kneading is not recommended for long-fermented pizza dough (or any leavened dough).

However, there are certain cases where intensive (or nearly intensive) kneading is beneficial or even mandatory:

1. Enriched Doughs: In breads like challah or brioche, enriched with ingredients like eggs, sugar, and fat, a strong gluten structure is required to support these enriching elements. Fat, in particular, softens the dough, making it more naturally extensible. Therefore, the added elasticity from intensive kneading is balanced with extensibility. Also, since the flavor in these doughs comes from the enriching ingredients rather than fermentation by-products, over-oxidation is less of a concern.
2. Emergency Dough: For doughs with very short fermentation times, intensive kneading ensures full gluten development without relying on time for biochemical development or folding.
3. Very Extensible Doughs: In cases where the dough has very high hydration and needs elasticity to balance extensibility, intensive kneading can be beneficial.

Improved Kneading

Improved kneading serves as a “compromise” between intensive and minimal kneading. It allows for moderate gluten development (between 50-70%) without causing excessive oxidation or loss of flavor, resulting in a dough with better texture compared to intensive kneading.

Summary and Visual Illustration of the Effect of the Kneading Method on Crumb Structure

Minimal Kneading: This method limits gluten development during the initial kneading phase, resulting in baked goods with a light, airy crumb and larger air pockets, creating a soft and tender texture. The downside is that it requires additional time for gluten development through folding or biochemical processes.

Minimal kneading is the best kneading method for long-fermented doughs.

Intensive Kneading: Achieves full gluten development by the end of the initial kneading but often leads to over-oxidation, which negatively affects flavor. This kneading method produces a denser, closed crumb structure and a chewier texture.

It is most suitable for short fermentation or enriched doughs, but not for long-fermented doughs.

Improved Kneading: A compromise that balances sufficient gluten development (without over-oxidation) and better texture, combining the advantages of both minimal and intensive kneading methods.

In the pictures below, you can observe the differences in crumb structure depending on the kneading method. In both cases, the dough underwent the same process (fermentation, shaping, and baking), except for the kneading method used.

Additional Kneading Techniques

Stretch and Folds (Dough Folding)

Stretch and folds, as the name suggests, involve folding the dough onto itself to create new gluten bonds and increase its elasticity.

The process works similarly to regular kneading: when the dough is stretched, it physically aligns the gluten-forming proteins (mainly glutenin), allowing them to rearrange and form new gluten bonds. In short, folding encourages the formation of new bonds between glutenin proteins, which enhances the dough’s elasticity and general strength.

Folding serves as a middle ground between mechanical gluten development (through kneading) and biochemical gluten development. The gluten bonds created during folds are less elastic than those formed during intensive kneading, leading to a dough that is more extensible than intensively kneaded dough, but more elastic than dough that has undergone minimal kneading with only biochemical gluten development.

Folding also offers additional benefits, such as balancing the dough’s internal temperature (since the inside of the dough tends to be warmer due to yeast activity and the dough’s insulating properties). It also helps redistribute the yeast throughout the dough, giving it access to new food sources, as yeast is immobile and can only consume nutrients in its immediate surroundings.

Stretch and folds are often combined with minimal or improved kneading. As mentioned earlier, folding offers a middle ground between physical kneading and biochemical gluten development – it helps add elasticity to the dough, without reaching the maximum elasticity caused by intensive kneading and its associated effects.

The number of fold series depends on various factors:

• The dough formula and hydration level.
• The kneading method (more gluten development during the initial kneading requires fewer folds, and vice versa).
• The fermentation time (a shorter fermentation period, such as two hours, may not allow for multiple fold series due to the required resting time in between. A longer fermentation allows for more folds and greater reliance on biochemical gluten development).

For example:

• After minimal kneading, 1-4 series of folds can be applied.
• After improved kneading, 1-2 series of folds can be applied.

It’s important to note that after intensive kneading, folds are unnecessary. Since full gluten development has already been achieved, additional folding won’t add more elasticity to the dough.

How to Do Stretch & Folds

Stretch and folds are done after the initial kneading/mixing, with intervals of 15 to 30 minutes between each series (including after the initial mixing). These intervals allow the gluten to relax before the next round of folding. At the end of kneading and after each fold, the gluten becomes elastic and resistant, so resting time is essential.

There are different folding techniques, with the most common being to stretch the dough outward and fold it into itself (as shown in the picture and video below), repeating from all sides until the dough becomes elastic and resists further folding.

Another method is to stretch the dough in a circular pattern from the edges inward, or you can pick it up and fold it onto itself, much like folding a towel.

Folding can also be done directly from the fridge. If the dough becomes very elastic due to the cold, simply increase the rest time between folds to 30 minutes to an hour.

Does Pizza Dough Need Folding?

For long-fermented pizza dough, especially when using improved kneading, folding isn’t usually required.

In the case of intensive kneading, whether for long or short fermentation, folding is unnecessary, since full gluten development has already been achieved.

With minimal kneading, most standard long-fermented pizza doughs (with 55-65% hydration) typically don’t require folding, as gluten develops biochemically during fermentation. However, factors such as the type of flour (e.g., Italian flours, which are naturally extensible), fermentation method (cold vs. room temperature), and dough hydration can influence the need for folding and the dough’s elasticity.

Ultimately, the best approach is to experiment with folding to determine what works best for you.

No-Knead Dough

No-knead dough is essentially an “extreme” form of minimal kneading, with a similar principle: almost no gluten is developed during the initial ‘kneading.’ Instead, gluten forms later biochemically and/or through stretch and folds.

This dough-making technique works great for all types of baked goods, but is particularly effective for highly hydrated doughs, where “normal” kneading can be challenging. No-knead dough eliminates the need for physical kneading, relying on folding and biochemical gluten development to develop gluten.

All the benefits of minimal kneading also apply to no-knead dough; The downsides are also similar: no-knead dough requires some handling after the initial mix, usually in the form of folding, unless you rely entirely on biochemical gluten development.

How to make Making No-Knead Dough

To make a no-knead dough, start by mixing all the dough ingredients until they are fully combined.

After the initial mix, let the dough rest for about twenty minutes. Then, perform 1 to 4 series of stretch and folds.

Autolyse

Autolyse is a dough technique that originates from the world of bread making. It involves mixing water and flour only, and allowing them to sit for at least 20 minutes before kneading.

The main goal of autolyse is to maximize water absorption before kneading, resulting in faster gluten development and shorter kneading time. By excluding components such as salt, sugar, or yeast (which all draw water from the flour), the flour is able to fully absorb the water prior to dough mixing.

Originally, the word “autolyse” refers to a biological concept that describes a process (‘autolysis’) in which a living cell breaks itself down (“self-digestion”). In the context of dough making, we are referring to the natural enzymes found in flour (amylase and protease) that break down the flour during the autolyse (and fermentation) process.

The Purpose of Autolyse and Its Effect on Dough

The main purpose of using an autolyse is to reduce kneading/mixing times. This helps prevent the dough from heating up too much or undergoing excessive oxidation during prolonged kneading. But how does an autolyse help with this?

To form gluten, the proteins in flour, glutenin and gliadin, must absorb water. An autolyse allows the flour to fully absorb the water beforehand, facilitating faster gluten development during kneading compared to “normal” kneading, where water absorption occurs gradually during the kneading process.

Another effect of autolyse is related to the enzymatic activity in flour. When water is added, the enzymes in the flour, specifically amylase and protease, become active. The amylase enzymes break down starch into sugars, while the protease enzymes break down the gluten-forming proteins.

Regarding amylase, autolyse may provide the yeast with slightly more available food at the beginning of fermentation; however, the amount of sugars formed during this phase is usually negligible and does not significantly impact fermentation.

As for protease enzymes, a longer autolyse leads to more protein breakdown, resulting in a more extensible dough.

How to Do an Autolyse

Begin by mixing all the water and flour required by the recipe in the bowl you’ll use for kneading/mixing. Ensure that everything is thoroughly combined, with no dry flour remaining. Cover the dough and let it rest for at least 20 minutes. After the autolyse period, add the remaining ingredients and continue with the kneading process as usual.

Is Autolyse Necessary When Making Pizza Dough?

Generally, an autolyse is not essential for pizza dough.

However, if you want to reduce kneading time, especially when using a mixer, an autolyse can be beneficial. Keep in mind that unless you perform a long autolyse lasting several hours, which might produce a more extensible dough (due to the activity of protease enzymes), a short autolyse will have no impact on the final product.

If you are kneading by hand, autolyse is not recommended (and also not necessary/beneficial), as it can make it difficult to properly incorporate the other dough ingredients (specifically yeast and salt) into the autolyzed water/flour mixture.

Conclusion: How Much Should You Knead Pizza Dough?

The answer to how much you should knead pizza dough is crucial for getting great results, but unfortunately, it’s an area where many people make mistakes. As we’ve seen, the kneading method affects both the texture and flavor of the final product, and while other factors like fermentation, dough formula, and baking method also matter, proper kneading sets the stage for everything else.

For pizza dough intended for long fermentation, intensive kneading that achieves full gluten development at the end of the initial kneading should generally be avoided.

Intensive kneading can adversely affect the flavor and texture of the pizza. While useful for specific applications, especially for doughs with very short fermentation periods, it is not recommended for most cases. The widespread belief that pizza dough should be kneaded ‘until you pass the windowpane test’ is a prime example of misguided advice.

As a rule of thumb, the longer the fermentation time, the less kneading is required, allowing biochemical gluten development and/or folding to take over.

For long-fermented doughs (at least 5 hours at room temperature or 24 hours in the fridge), minimal kneading is usually sufficient (with or without additional folding), and this is my personal recommendation.

Minimal kneading will yield a pizza with an optimal structure: airy, with a soft and tender texture and richer flavor. Improved kneading can be effective as well, particularly if you prefer a more elastic dough or have a shorter fermentation time, or if you prefer not to fold after kneading.

In conclusion, experimenting with different kneading methods will help you find what works best for your dough-making process. You may be pleasantly surprised by the results!

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